See also: Atomic theory and Plum pudding model A schematic of the nucleus of an atom indicating : 112–115 The gold foil experiment and the discovery of the atomic nucleus Conversely, the radiations were also recognized as tools that could be exploited in scattering experiments to probe the interior of atoms. : 61–62, 87 These radiations had also been identified as emanating from atoms, hence they provided clues to processes occurring within atoms. : 8–9 These radiations were soon identified with known particles: beta rays were shown to be electrons by Walter Kaufmann in 1902 alpha rays were shown to be helium ions by Rutherford and Thomas Royds in 1907 and gamma rays were shown to be electromagnetic radiation, that is, a form of light, by Rutherford and Edward Andrade in 1914. Two years later, Paul Villard discovered gamma rays, which possessed even more penetrating power. In 1898, Ernest Rutherford at Cavendish Laboratory distinguished two types of radioactivity, alpha rays and beta rays, which differed in their ability to penetrate, or travel into, ordinary objects or gases. Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials. Philosophers such as Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald denied that atoms were real, viewing them as a convenient mathematical construct, while scientists such as Arnold Sommerfeld and Ludwig Boltzmann saw that physical theories required the existence of atoms. Discovery of radioactivity Īt the start of the 20th century, the vigorous debate as to the existence of atoms had not yet been resolved. Both the proton and the neutron were presumed to be elementary particles until the 1960s, when they were determined to be composite particles built from quarks. The discovery of fission led to the creation of both nuclear power and nuclear weapons by the end of World War II. The uncharged neutron was immediately exploited as a new means to probe nuclear structure, leading to such discoveries as the creation of new radioactive elements by neutron irradiation (1934) and the fission of uranium atoms by neutrons (1938). The essential nature of the atomic nucleus was established with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 and the determination that it was a new elementary particle, distinct from the proton. : §1.1.2 Throughout the 1920s, the nucleus was viewed as composed of combinations of protons and electrons, the two elementary particles known at the time, but that model presented several experimental and theoretical contradictions. By 1920, isotopes of chemical elements had been discovered, the atomic masses had been determined to be (approximately) integer multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom, and the atomic number had been identified as the charge on the nucleus. In this model, atoms had their mass and positive electric charge concentrated in a very small nucleus. Early in the century, Ernest Rutherford developed a crude model of the atom, : 188 based on the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden. The discovery of the neutron and its properties was central to the extraordinary developments in atomic physics in the first half of the 20th century. Chadwick had discovered the neutron the year before while working at Cavendish Laboratory. James Chadwick at the 1933 Solvay Conference. Scientific background leading to the discovery of subatomic particles
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